Waka Techniques:
Makurakotoba (Pillow Words)
Makurakotoba, literally “pillow words,” are traditional fixed expressions in Japanese poetry, similar to poetic epithets. Much like Homer’s “rosy-fingered Dawn” or “wine-dark sea,” they are conventionally paired with particular words.
A pillow word usually consists of five syllables (more precisely, morae, the sound units of Japanese verse) and appears directly before the word it leads into, adding rhythm, beauty, and dignity to the poem rather than conveying a specific meaning.
This creates a challenge for translators: translating a pillow word literally can sound strange in English, but omitting it may mean losing some of the poem’s rhythm, atmosphere, and poetic texture.
In each diagram below, the pillow word is highlighted, and the word it leads into is marked with a double underline. Tap or click a diagram to open the poem’s page. The romaji under each line follows the old kana spelling of classical poetry, so it is not always read as written: for example, shirotahe is read shirotae, and afusaka is read Ōsaka.
Poem 2: Empress Jitō
春過ぎてharusugite 夏来にけらしnatsukinikerashi Makurakotoba白妙のshirotaheno 衣ほすてふkoromohosutefu 天の香具山amanokaguyama
Spring has passed and summer seems to have come — white robes are said to be hung out to dry on the heavenly Mount Kagu.
Shirotae no refers to pure-white cloth woven from the fibers of tree bark. Here it leads into koromo (robes).
Poem 3: Kakinomoto no Hitomaro
Makurakotobaあしびきのashibikino 山鳥の尾のyamadorinoono しだり尾のshidariono ながながし夜をnaganagashiyoo ひとりかも寝むhitorikamonemu
As long as the trailing tail feathers of the mountain bird — through these long, long nights, must I sleep alone?
There are several theories about the origin of ashibiki no: one says it comes from the long, trailing ridgelines at the foot of a mountain, another that it describes dragging one's feet while climbing. It is a pillow word that leads into yama (mountain).
Poem 4: Yamabe no Akahito
田子の浦にtagonourani うちいでてみればuchiidetemireba Makurakotoba白妙のshirotaheno 富士の高嶺にfujinotakaneni 雪は降りつつyukihafuritsutsu
Going out to Tago Bay and looking around, I see snow falling ceaselessly on the high peak of Fuji, white as freshly woven cloth.
Shirotae no refers to pure-white cloth woven from the fibers of tree bark. It is a pillow word that leads into words related to cloth, or to white things such as clouds, snow and waves. Here it leads into Fuji, whose high peak is white with snow.
Poem 17: Ariwara no Narihira Ason
Makurakotobaちはやぶるchihayaburu 神代もきかずkamiyomokikazu 竜田川tatsutagaha から紅にkarakurenaini 水くくるとはmizukukurutoha
Even the ancient gods never heard of this — the Tatsuta River, dyeing its waters a deep crimson with fallen maple leaves.
Chihayaburu means fierce or mighty. It is a pillow word that leads into words such as kami (gods) and the place name Uji.
Poem 33: Ki no Tomonori
Makurakotoba久方のhisakatano 光のどけきhikarinodokeki 春の日にharunohini しづ心なくshizukokoronaku 花の散るらむhananochiruramu
In the peaceful light of a spring day, why do the cherry blossoms scatter so restlessly?
Hisakata no is said to mean “the direction from which the sun shines.” It is a pillow word that leads into words related to the sky and the heavenly bodies. Here it leads into hikari (light).
Poem 76: Lay Novice of Hosshō-ji Temple, former Kampaku and Chancellor of the Realm
わたの原watanohara こぎいでてみればkogiidetemireba Makurakotoba久方のhisakatano 雲居にまがふkumoinimagafu 沖つ白波okitsushiranami
Rowing out onto the open sea and looking around — the white waves far off on the water seem to blur into the clouds.
Hisakata no is said to mean “the direction from which the sun shines.” It is a pillow word that leads into words related to the sky and the heavenly bodies. Here it leads into kumoi (the clouds; literally “where the clouds are”).
Other Waka Techniques
- Kakekotoba (Pivot Words) and Engo (Associated Words): One sound carrying two meanings, and words that echo one another
- Jokotoba (Preface Words): Scenes from nature that lead into the poet’s feelings